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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Psychrometrics" title="Psychrometrics">psychrometrics</a>, the measurement of the heat and water vapor properties of air.</div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses of this term and similar terms, see <a href="Psychometry_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Psychometry (disambiguation)">Psychometry (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the theory and technique of measurement of psychological attributes. For research design and methodology in psychology, see <a href="Psychological_statistics" title="Psychological statistics">Psychological statistics</a>. For the mathematical modeling of psychological theories and phenomena, see <a href="Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical psychology</a>.</div>
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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:#ccccff;"><a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0;padding:0.8em;"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.35em;">
<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li>
<li><a href="Subfields_of_psychology" title="Subfields of psychology">Subfields</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">
<ul><li><a href="Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li>
<li><a href="Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li>
<li><a href="Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li>
<li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li>
<li><a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>
<li><a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li>
<li><a href="Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a>
<ul><li><a href="Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li>
<li><a href="Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li>
<li><a href="Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li>
<li><a href="Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li>
<li><a href="Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li>
<li><a href="Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li>
<li><a href="Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li>
<li><a href="Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li>
<li><a href="Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li>
<li><a href="Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li>
<li><a href="Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li>
<li><a href="Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li>
<li><a href="Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li>
<li><a href="Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li>
<li><a href="Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li>
<li><a href="Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">
<ul><li><a href="Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li>
<li><a href="Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychology_of_art" title="Psychology of art">Art</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li>
<li><a href="Aviation_psychology" title="Aviation psychology">Aviation</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychobiography" title="Psychobiography">Biography of famous people</a></li>
<li><a href="Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li>
<li><a href="Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychology_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology of color">Color</a></li>
<li><a href="Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li>
<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li>
<li><a href="Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li>
<li><a href="Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li>
<li><a href="Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational</a></li>
<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li>
<li><a href="Fashion_psychology" title="Fashion psychology">Fashion</a></li>
<li><a href="Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="Food_psychology" title="Food psychology">Food</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li>
<li><a href="Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychohistory" title="Psychohistory">History</a></li>
<li><a href="Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li>
<li><a href="Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li>
<li><a href="Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li>
<li><a href="Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li>
<li><a href="Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li>
<li><a href="Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="Music_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li>
<li><a href="Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li>
<li><a href="Peace_psychology" title="Peace psychology">Peace and war</a></li>
<li><a href="Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li>
<li><a href="Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive</a></li>
<li><a href="Photo_psychology" title="Photo psychology">Photography</a></li>
<li>Psychometrics</li>
<li><a href="Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="School_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="School psychology">School</a></li>
<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></li>
<li><a href="Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Space</a></li>
<li><a href="Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li>
<li><a href="Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li>
<li><a href="Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li>
<li><a href="Stock_trader" title="Stock trader">Trading</a></li>
<li><a href="Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li>
<li><a href="Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li>
<li><a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>
<li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>
<li><a href="Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li>
<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>
<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li>
<li><a href="Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li>
<li><a href="Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li>
<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li>
<li><a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">Maslow's hierarchy of needs</a></li>
<li><a href="Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental state</a></li>
<li><a href="Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li>
<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></li>
<li><a href="Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul>
</div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">
<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li>
<li><a href="Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li>
<li><a href="Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="skin-invert-image noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3APsychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">
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<p><b>Psychometrics</b> is a field of study within <a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> concerned with the theory and technique of <a href="Measurement" title="Measurement">measurement</a>. Psychometrics generally covers specialized fields within psychology and education devoted to testing, measurement, assessment, and related activities.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Psychometrics is concerned with the objective measurement of <a href="Latent_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Latent variable">latent constructs</a> that cannot be directly observed. Examples of latent constructs include <a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>, <a href="Introversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Introversion">introversion</a>, <a href="Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">mental disorders</a>, and <a href="Educational_measurement" title="Educational measurement">educational achievement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The levels of individuals on nonobservable latent variables are <a href="Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">inferred</a> through <a href="Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical modeling</a> based on what is observed from individuals' responses to items on tests and scales.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Practitioners are described as psychometricians, although not all who engage in psychometric research go by this title. Psychometricians usually possess specific qualifications, such as degrees or certifications, and most are <a href="Psychologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychologists">psychologists</a> with advanced graduate training in psychometrics and measurement theory. In addition to traditional academic institutions, practitioners also work for organizations, such as <a href="Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson</a> and the <a href="Educational_Testing_Service" title="Educational Testing Service">Educational Testing Service</a>. Some psychometric researchers focus on the construction and validation of assessment instruments, including <a href="Survey_sampling" title="Survey sampling">surveys</a>, <a href="Scale_invariance" title="Scale invariance">scales</a>, and <a href="Open-ended_question" title="Open-ended question">open-</a> or <a href="Closed-ended_question" title="Closed-ended question">close-ended</a> <a href="Questionnaire" title="Questionnaire">questionnaires</a>. Others focus on research relating to measurement theory (e.g., <a href="Item_response_theory" title="Item response theory">item response theory</a>, <a href="Intraclass_correlation" title="Intraclass correlation">intraclass correlation</a>) or specialize as <a href="Learning_and_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Learning and development">learning and development</a> professionals.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_foundation">Historical foundation</h2></div>
<p>Psychological testing has come from two streams of thought: the first, from <a href="Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a>, <a href="Sir_Francis_Galton" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Francis Galton">Galton</a>, and <a href="James_McKeen_Cattell" title="James McKeen Cattell">Cattell</a>, on the measurement of individual differences and the second, from <a href="J.E._Herbart" class="mw-redirect" title="J.E. Herbart">Herbart</a>, <a href="E.H._Weber" class="mw-redirect" title="E.H. Weber">Weber</a>, <a href="Gustav_Fechner" title="Gustav Fechner">Fechner</a>, and <a href="Wundt" class="mw-redirect" title="Wundt">Wundt</a> and their psychophysical measurements of a similar construct. The second set of individuals and their research is what has led to the development of <a href="Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">experimental psychology</a> and standardized testing.<sup id="cite_ref-kap_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kap-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Victorian_stream">Victorian stream</h3></div>
<p>Charles Darwin was the inspiration behind Francis Galton, a scientist who advanced the development of psychometrics. In 1859, Darwin published his book <i><a href="On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>. Darwin described the role of natural selection in the emergence, over time, of different populations of species of plants and animals. The book showed how individual members of a <a href="Species" title="Species">species</a> differ among themselves and how they possess characteristics that are more or less adaptive to their environment. Those with more adaptive characteristics are more likely to survive to procreate and give rise to another generation. Those with less adaptive characteristics are less likely. These ideas stimulated Galton's interest in the study of human beings and how they differ one from another and how to measure those differences.
</p><p>Galton wrote a book entitled <i><a href="Hereditary_Genius" title="Hereditary Genius">Hereditary Genius</a></i> which was first published in 1869. The book described different characteristics that people possess and how those characteristics make some more "fit" than others. Today these differences, such as sensory and motor functioning (reaction time, visual acuity, and physical strength), are important domains of scientific psychology. Much of the early theoretical and applied work in psychometrics was undertaken in an attempt to measure <a href="Intelligence_(trait)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence (trait)">intelligence</a>. Galton often referred to as "the father of psychometrics," devised and included mental tests among his <a href="Anthropometric" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropometric">anthropometric</a> measures. <a href="James_McKeen_Cattell" title="James McKeen Cattell">James McKeen Cattell</a>, a pioneer in the field of psychometrics, went on to extend Galton's work. Cattell coined the term <i>mental test</i>, and is responsible for research and knowledge that ultimately led to the development of modern tests.<sup id="cite_ref-kap_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kap-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_stream">German stream</h3></div>
<p>The origin of psychometrics also has connections to the related field of <a href="Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">psychophysics</a>. Around the same time that Darwin, Galton, and Cattell were making their discoveries, Herbart was also interested in "unlocking the mysteries of human consciousness" through the scientific method.<sup id="cite_ref-kap_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kap-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herbart was responsible for creating mathematical models of the mind, which were influential in educational practices for years to come.
</p><p><a href="Ernst_Heinrich_Weber" title="Ernst Heinrich Weber">E.H. Weber</a> built upon Herbart's work and tried to prove the existence of a psychological threshold, saying that a minimum stimulus was necessary to activate a <a href="Sensory_nervous_system" title="Sensory nervous system">sensory system</a>. After Weber, <a href="Gustav_Fechner" title="Gustav Fechner">G.T. Fechner</a> expanded upon the knowledge he gleaned from Herbart and Weber, to devise the law that the strength of a sensation grows as the logarithm of the stimulus intensity. A follower of Weber and Fechner, <a href="Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a> is credited with founding the science of psychology. It is Wundt's influence that paved the way for others to develop psychological testing.<sup id="cite_ref-kap_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kap-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3></div>
<p>In 1936, the psychometrician <a href="L._L._Thurstone" class="mw-redirect" title="L. L. Thurstone">L. L. Thurstone</a>, founder and first president of the Psychometric Society, developed and applied a theoretical approach to measurement referred to as the <a href="Law_of_comparative_judgment" title="Law of comparative judgment">law of comparative judgment</a>, an approach that has close connections to the psychophysical theory of <a href="Ernst_Heinrich_Weber" title="Ernst Heinrich Weber">Ernst Heinrich Weber</a> and <a href="Gustav_Fechner" title="Gustav Fechner">Gustav Fechner</a>. In addition, Spearman and Thurstone both made important contributions to the theory and application of <a href="Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">factor analysis</a>, a statistical method developed and used extensively in psychometrics.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 1950s, <a href="Leopold_Szondi" class="mw-redirect" title="Leopold Szondi">Leopold Szondi</a> made a historical and epistemological assessment of the impact of statistical thinking on psychology during previous few decades: "in the last decades, the specifically psychological thinking has been almost completely suppressed and removed, and replaced by a statistical thinking. Precisely here we see the cancer of testology and testomania of today."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>More recently, psychometric theory has been applied in the measurement of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/personality" class="extiw external" title="wikt:personality">personality</a>, <a href="Attitude_(psychology)" title="Attitude (psychology)">attitudes</a> and <a href="Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a>, and <a href="Academic_achievement" title="Academic achievement">academic achievement</a>. These latent constructs cannot truly be measured, and much of the research and science in this discipline has been developed in an attempt to measure these constructs as close to the true score as possible.
</p><p>Figures who made significant contributions to psychometrics include <a href="Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a>, Henry F. Kaiser, <a href="Carl_Brigham" title="Carl Brigham">Carl Brigham</a>, <a href="L._L._Thurstone" class="mw-redirect" title="L. L. Thurstone">L. L. Thurstone</a>, <a href="E._L._Thorndike" class="mw-redirect" title="E. L. Thorndike">E. L. Thorndike</a>, <a href="Georg_Rasch" title="Georg Rasch">Georg Rasch</a>, <a href="Eugene_Galanter" title="Eugene Galanter">Eugene Galanter</a>, <a href="Johnson_O'Connor" title="Johnson O'Connor">Johnson O'Connor</a>, <a href="Frederic_M._Lord" title="Frederic M. Lord">Frederic M. Lord</a>, <a href="Ledyard_R_Tucker" class="mw-redirect" title="Ledyard R Tucker">Ledyard R Tucker</a>, <a href="Louis_Guttman" title="Louis Guttman">Louis Guttman</a>, and <a href="Jane_Loevinger" title="Jane Loevinger">Jane Loevinger</a>.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_of_measurement_in_the_social_sciences">Definition of measurement in the social sciences</h2></div>
<p>The definition of measurement in the social sciences has a long history. A current widespread definition, proposed by <a href="Stanley_Smith_Stevens" title="Stanley Smith Stevens">Stanley Smith Stevens</a>, is that measurement is "the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to some rule." This definition was introduced in a 1946 <i><a href="Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i> article in which Stevens proposed four <a href="Levels_of_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="Levels of measurement">levels of measurement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stevens_1946_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevens_1946-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although widely adopted, this definition differs in important respects from the more classical definition of measurement adopted in the physical sciences, namely that scientific measurement entails "the estimation or discovery of the ratio of some magnitude of a quantitative attribute to a unit of the same attribute" (p. 358)<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Indeed, Stevens's definition of measurement was put forward in response to the British Ferguson Committee, whose chair, A. Ferguson, was a physicist. The committee was appointed in 1932 by the British Association for the Advancement of Science to investigate the possibility of quantitatively estimating sensory events. Although its chair and other members were physicists, the committee also included several psychologists. The committee's report highlighted the importance of the definition of measurement. While Stevens's response was to propose a new definition, which has had considerable influence in the field, this was by no means the only response to the report. Another, notably different, response was to accept the classical definition, as reflected in the following statement:
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<dl><dd>Measurement in psychology and physics are in no sense different. Physicists can measure when they can find the operations by which they may meet the necessary criteria; psychologists have to do the same. They need not worry about the mysterious differences between the meaning of measurement in the two sciences (Reese, 1943, p. 49).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>These divergent responses are reflected in alternative approaches to measurement. For example, methods based on <a href="Covariance_matrix" title="Covariance matrix">covariance matrices</a> are typically employed on the premise that numbers, such as raw scores derived from assessments, are measurements. Such approaches implicitly entail Stevens's definition of measurement, which requires only that numbers are <i>assigned</i> according to some rule. The main research task, then, is generally considered to be the discovery of associations between scores, and of factors posited to underlie such associations.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>On the other hand, when measurement models such as the <a href="Rasch_model" title="Rasch model">Rasch model</a> are employed, numbers are not assigned based on a rule. Instead, in keeping with Reese's statement above, specific criteria for measurement are stated, and the goal is to construct procedures or operations that provide data that meet the relevant criteria. Measurements are estimated based on the models, and tests are conducted to ascertain whether the relevant criteria have been met.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Instruments_and_procedures">Instruments and procedures</h2></div>
<p>The first psychometric instruments were designed to measure <a href="Intelligence_(trait)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence (trait)">intelligence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One early approach to measuring intelligence was the test developed in France by <a href="Alfred_Binet" title="Alfred Binet">Alfred Binet</a> and <a href="Theodore_Simon" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodore Simon">Theodore Simon</a>. That test was known as the Test Binet-Simon.The French test was adapted for use in the U. S. by <a href="Lewis_Terman" title="Lewis Terman">Lewis Terman</a> of Stanford University, and named the <a href="Stanford-Binet_IQ_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford-Binet IQ test">Stanford-Binet IQ test</a>.
</p><p>Another major focus in psychometrics has been on <a href="Personality_test" title="Personality test">personality testing</a>. There has been a range of theoretical approaches to conceptualizing and measuring personality, though there is no widely agreed upon theory. Some of the better-known instruments include the <a href="Minnesota_Multiphasic_Personality_Inventory" title="Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory">Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory</a>, the <a href="Big_five_personality_traits" class="mw-redirect" title="Big five personality traits">Five-Factor Model</a> (or "Big 5") and tools such as <a href="Personality_and_Preference_Inventory" title="Personality and Preference Inventory">Personality and Preference Inventory</a> and the <a href="Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator" title="Myers–Briggs Type Indicator">Myers–Briggs Type Indicator</a>. Attitudes have also been studied extensively using psychometric approaches.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An alternative method involves the application of unfolding measurement models, the most general being the Hyperbolic Cosine Model (Andrich & Luo, 1993).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_approaches">Theoretical approaches</h2></div>
<p>Psychometricians have developed a number of different measurement theories. These include <a href="Classical_test_theory" title="Classical test theory">classical test theory</a> (CTT) and <a href="Item_response_theory" title="Item response theory">item response theory</a> (IRT).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An approach that seems mathematically to be similar to IRT but also quite distinctive, in terms of its origins and features, is represented by the <a href="Rasch_model" title="Rasch model">Rasch model</a> for measurement. The development of the Rasch model, and the broader class of models to which it belongs, was explicitly founded on requirements of measurement in the physical sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Psychometricians have also developed methods for working with large matrices of correlations and covariances. Techniques in this general tradition include: <a href="Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">factor analysis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a method of determining the underlying dimensions of data. One of the main challenges faced by users of factor analysis is a lack of consensus on appropriate procedures for <a href="Factor_analysis#Criteria_for_determining_the_number_of_factors" title="Factor analysis">determining the number of latent factors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zwick1986_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zwick1986-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A usual procedure is to stop factoring when <a href="Eigenvalues_and_eigenvectors" title="Eigenvalues and eigenvectors">eigenvalues</a> drop below one because the original sphere shrinks. The lack of the cutting points concerns other multivariate methods, also.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><a href="Multidimensional_scaling" title="Multidimensional scaling">Multidimensional scaling</a><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a method for finding a simple representation for data with a large number of latent dimensions. <a href="Cluster_analysis" title="Cluster analysis">Cluster analysis</a> is an approach to finding objects that are like each other. Factor analysis, multidimensional scaling, and cluster analysis are all multivariate descriptive methods used to distill from large amounts of data simpler structures.
</p><p>More recently, <a href="Structural_equation_modeling" title="Structural equation modeling">structural equation modeling</a><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="Path_analysis_(statistics)" title="Path analysis (statistics)">path analysis</a> represent more sophisticated approaches to working with large <a href="Covariance_matrix" title="Covariance matrix">covariance matrices</a>. These methods allow statistically sophisticated models to be fitted to data and tested to determine if they are adequate fits. Because at a granular level psychometric research is concerned with the extent and nature of multidimensionality in each of the items of interest, a relatively new procedure known as bi-factor analysis<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can be helpful. Bi-factor analysis can decompose "an item's systematic variance in terms of, ideally, two sources, a general factor and one source of additional systematic variance."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Key_concepts">Key concepts</h3></div>
<p>Key concepts in classical test theory are <a href="Reliability_(psychometric)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reliability (psychometric)">reliability</a> and <a href="Test_validity" title="Test validity">validity</a>. A reliable measure is one that measures a construct consistently across time, individuals, and situations. A valid measure is one that measures what it is intended to measure. Reliability is necessary, but not sufficient, for validity.
</p><p>Both reliability and validity can be assessed statistically. Consistency over repeated measures of the same test can be assessed with the Pearson correlation coefficient, and is often called <i>test-retest reliability.</i><sup id="cite_ref-gifted.uconn_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gifted.uconn-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the equivalence of different versions of the same measure can be indexed by a <a href="Pearson_product-moment_correlation_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient">Pearson correlation</a>, and is called <i>equivalent forms reliability</i> or a similar term.<sup id="cite_ref-gifted.uconn_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gifted.uconn-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Internal consistency, which addresses the homogeneity of a single test form, may be assessed by correlating performance on two halves of a test, which is termed <i>split-half reliability</i>; the value of this <a href="Pearson_product-moment_correlation_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient">Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient</a> for two half-tests is adjusted with the <a href="Spearman%E2%80%93Brown_prediction_formula" title="Spearman–Brown prediction formula">Spearman–Brown prediction formula</a> to correspond to the correlation between two full-length tests.<sup id="cite_ref-gifted.uconn_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gifted.uconn-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perhaps the most commonly used index of reliability is <a href="Cronbach's_%CE%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="Cronbach's α">Cronbach's α</a>, which is equivalent to the <a href="Mean" title="Mean">mean</a> of all possible split-half coefficients. Other approaches include the <a href="Intra-class_correlation" class="mw-redirect" title="Intra-class correlation">intra-class correlation</a>, which is the ratio of variance of measurements of a given target to the variance of all targets.
</p><p>There are a number of different forms of validity. <a href="Criterion_validity" title="Criterion validity">Criterion-related validity</a> refers to the extent to which a test or scale predicts a sample of behavior, i.e., the criterion, that is "external to the measuring instrument itself."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That external sample of behavior can be many things including another test; college grade point average as when the high school SAT is used to predict performance in college; and even behavior that occurred in the past, for example, when a test of current psychological symptoms is used to predict the occurrence of past victimization (which would accurately represent postdiction). When the criterion measure is collected at the same time as the measure being validated the goal is to establish <i><a href="Concurrent_validity" title="Concurrent validity">concurrent validity</a></i>; when the criterion is collected later the goal is to establish <i><a href="Predictive_validity" title="Predictive validity">predictive validity</a></i>. A measure has <i><a href="Construct_validity" title="Construct validity">construct validity</a></i> if it is related to measures of other constructs as required by theory. <i><a href="Content_validity" title="Content validity">Content validity</a></i> is a demonstration that the items of a test do an adequate job of covering the domain being measured. In a personnel selection example, test content is based on a defined statement or set of statements of knowledge, skill, ability, or other characteristics obtained from a <i><a href="Job_analysis" title="Job analysis">job analysis</a></i>.
</p><p><a href="Item_response_theory" title="Item response theory">Item response theory</a> models the relationship between <a href="Latent_trait" class="mw-redirect" title="Latent trait">latent traits</a> and responses to test items. Among other advantages, IRT provides a basis for obtaining an estimate of the location of a test-taker on a given latent trait as well as the standard error of measurement of that location. For example, a university student's knowledge of history can be deduced from his or her score on a university test and then be compared reliably with a high school student's knowledge deduced from a less difficult test. Scores derived by classical test theory do not have this characteristic, and assessment of actual ability (rather than ability relative to other test-takers) must be assessed by comparing scores to those of a "norm group" randomly selected from the population. In fact, all measures derived from classical test theory are dependent on the sample tested, while, in principle, those derived from item response theory are not.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Standards_of_quality">Standards of quality</h2></div>
<p>The considerations of <a href="Validity_(statistics)" title="Validity (statistics)">validity</a> and <a href="Reliability_(statistics)" title="Reliability (statistics)">reliability</a> typically are viewed as essential elements for determining the <a href="Quality_(business)" title="Quality (business)">quality</a> of any test. However, professional and practitioner associations frequently have placed these concerns within broader contexts when developing <a href="Standards_organization" title="Standards organization">standards</a> and making overall judgments about the quality of any test as a whole within a given context. A consideration of concern in many applied research settings is whether or not the metric of a given psychological inventory is meaningful or arbitrary.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Testing_standards">Testing standards</h3></div>
<p>In 2014, the American Educational Research Association (AERA), American Psychological Association (APA), and National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME) published a revision of the <i><a href="Standards_for_Educational_and_Psychological_Testing" title="Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing">Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which describes standards for test development, evaluation, and use. The <i>Standards</i> cover essential topics in testing including validity, reliability/errors of measurement, and fairness in testing. The book also establishes standards related to testing operations—including test design and development, scores, scales, norms, score linking, cut scores, test administration, scoring, reporting, score interpretation, test documentation, and rights and responsibilities of test takers and test users. Finally, the <i>Standards</i> cover topics related to testing applications, including <a href="Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">psychological testing and assessment</a>, workplace testing and <a href="Professional_certification" title="Professional certification">credentialing</a>, <a href="Test_(student_assessment)" class="mw-redirect" title="Test (student assessment)">educational testing and assessment</a>, and testing in <a href="Program_evaluation" title="Program evaluation">program evaluation</a> and public policy.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evaluation_standards">Evaluation standards</h3></div>
<p>In the field of <a href="Evaluation" title="Evaluation">evaluation</a>, and in particular <a href="Educational_evaluation" title="Educational evaluation">educational evaluation</a>, the <a href="Joint_Committee_on_Standards_for_Educational_Evaluation" title="Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation">Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation</a><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has published three sets of standards for evaluations. <i>The Personnel Evaluation Standards</i><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was published in 1988, <i>The Program Evaluation Standards</i> (2nd edition)<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was published in 1994, and <i>The Student Evaluation Standards</i><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was published in 2003.
</p><p>Each publication presents and elaborates a set of standards for use in a variety of educational settings. The standards provide guidelines for designing, implementing, assessing, and improving the identified form of evaluation.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each of the standards has been placed in one of four fundamental categories to promote educational evaluations that are proper, useful, feasible, and accurate. In these sets of standards, validity and reliability considerations are covered under the accuracy topic. For example, the student accuracy standards help ensure that student evaluations will provide sound, accurate, and credible information about student learning and performance.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversy_and_criticism">Controversy and criticism</h2></div>
<p>Because psychometrics is based on <a href="Latent_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Latent variable">latent psychological processes</a> measured through <a href="Correlation" title="Correlation">correlations</a>, there has been controversy about some psychometric measures.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics, including practitioners in the <a href="Physical_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical sciences">physical sciences</a>, have argued that such definition and quantification is difficult, and that such measurements are often misused by laymen, such as with personality tests used in employment procedures. The Standards for Educational and Psychological Measurement gives the following statement on <a href="Test_validity" title="Test validity">test validity</a>: "validity refers to the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores entailed by proposed uses of tests".<sup id="cite_ref-1999standards_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1999standards-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simply put, a test is not valid unless it is used and interpreted in the way it is intended.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Two types of tools used to measure <a href="Personality_traits" class="mw-redirect" title="Personality traits">personality traits</a> are <a href="Objective_test" title="Objective test">objective tests</a> and <a href="Projective_test" title="Projective test">projective measures</a>. Examples of such tests are the: <a href="Big_Five_personality_traits" title="Big Five personality traits">Big Five Inventory</a> (BFI), <a href="Minnesota_Multiphasic_Personality_Inventory" title="Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory">Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory</a> (MMPI-2), <a href="Rorschach_test" title="Rorschach test">Rorschach Inkblot test</a>, <a href="Neurotic_Personality_Questionnaire_KON-2006" title="Neurotic Personality Questionnaire KON-2006">Neurotic Personality Questionnaire KON-2006</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="Eysenck_Personality_Questionnaire" title="Eysenck Personality Questionnaire">Eysenck Personality Questionnaire</a>. Some of these tests are helpful because they have adequate <a href="Reliability_(research_methods)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reliability (research methods)">reliability</a> and <a href="Test_validity" title="Test validity">validity</a>, two factors that make tests consistent and accurate reflections of the underlying construct. <a href="Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator" title="Myers–Briggs Type Indicator">The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator</a> (MBTI), however, has questionable validity and has been the subject of much criticism. Psychometric specialist <a href="Robert_Hogan_(psychologist)" title="Robert Hogan (psychologist)">Robert Hogan</a> wrote of the measure: "Most personality psychologists regard the MBTI as little more than an elaborate Chinese fortune cookie."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><a href="Lee_Cronbach" title="Lee Cronbach">Lee Cronbach</a> noted in <i><a href="American_Psychologist" title="American Psychologist">American Psychologist</a></i> (1957) that, "correlational psychology, though fully as old as experimentation, was slower to mature. It qualifies equally as a discipline, however, because it asks a distinctive type of question and has technical methods of examining whether the question has been properly put and the data properly interpreted." He would go on to say, "The correlation method, for its part, can study what man has not learned to control or can never hope to control ... A true federation of the disciplines is required. Kept independent, they can give only wrong answers or no answers at all regarding certain important problems."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-human:_animals_and_machines">Non-human: animals and machines</h2></div>
<p>Psychometrics addresses <i>human</i> abilities, attitudes, traits, and educational evolution. Notably, the study of behavior, mental processes, and abilities of non-human <i>animals</i> is usually addressed by <a href="Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">comparative psychology</a>, or with a continuum between non-human animals and the rest of animals by <a href="Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a>. Nonetheless, there are some advocators for a more gradual transition between the approach taken for humans and the approach taken for (non-human) animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Humphreys_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humphreys-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eysenck_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eysenck-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Locurto_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locurto-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-king1997five_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-king1997five-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The evaluation of abilities, traits and learning evolution of <i>machines</i> has been mostly unrelated to the case of humans and non-human animals, with specific approaches in the area of <a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>. A more integrated approach, under the name of <a href="Universal_psychometrics" title="Universal psychometrics">universal psychometrics</a>, has also been proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-upsycho_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-upsycho-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div>
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<ul><li><a href="Cattell%E2%80%93Horn%E2%80%93Carroll_theory" title="Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory">Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Classical_test_theory" title="Classical test theory">Classical test theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Computational_psychometrics" title="Computational psychometrics">Computational psychometrics</a></li>
<li><a href="Concept_inventory" title="Concept inventory">Concept inventory</a></li>
<li><a href="Cronbach's_alpha" title="Cronbach's alpha">Cronbach's alpha</a></li>
<li><a href="Educational_assessment" title="Educational assessment">Educational assessment</a></li>
<li><a href="Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">Factor analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li>
<li><a href="Item_response_theory" title="Item response theory">Item response theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Likert_scale" title="Likert scale">Likert scale</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_international_databases_on_individual_student_achievement_tests" title="List of international databases on individual student achievement tests">List of international databases on individual student achievement tests</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_psychometric_software" class="mw-redirect" title="List of psychometric software">List of psychometric software</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_schools_for_quantitative_psychology" title="List of schools for quantitative psychology">List of schools for psychometrics</a></li>
<li><a href="Congeneric_reliability" title="Congeneric reliability">Omega</a></li>
<li><a href="Operationalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Operationalisation">Operationalisation</a></li>
<li><a href="Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychometric_Society" title="Psychometric Society">Psychometric Society</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Psychological testing</a></li>
<li><a href="Rasch_model" title="Rasch model">Rasch model</a></li>
<li><a href="Scale_(social_sciences)" title="Scale (social sciences)">Scale (social sciences)</a></li>
<li><a href="School_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="School psychology">School psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">Standardized test</a></li></ul></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>
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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">
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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170722194028/http://www.ncme.org/ncme/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary1.aspx?hkey=4bb87415-44dc-4088-9ed9-e8515326a061#anchorP">"Glossary1"</a>. 22 July 2017. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncme.org/ncme/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary1.aspx?hkey=4bb87415-44dc-4088-9ed9-e8515326a061#anchorP">the original</a> on 2017-07-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTabachnickFidell2001" class="citation book cs1">Tabachnick, B.G.; Fidell, L.S. (2001). <i>Using Multivariate Analysis</i>. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-321-05677-1</bdi>.</cite></span>
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<li id="cite_note-kap-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kap_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kap_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kap_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kap_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKaplanSaccuzzo2012" class="citation book cs1">Kaplan, Robert M.; Saccuzzo, Dennis P. (2012-05-01). <i>Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues</i> (8th ed.). Cengage Learning. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-133-49201-6</bdi>.</cite></span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNunnallyBernstein1994" class="citation book cs1">Nunnally, Jum C.; Bernstein, Ira H. (1994). <i>Psychometric Theory</i> (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-07-047849-7</bdi>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Leopold_Szondi" class="mw-redirect" title="Leopold Szondi">Leopold Szondi</a> (1960) <i>Das zweite Buch: Lehrbuch der Experimentellen Triebdiagnostik</i>. Huber, Bern und Stuttgart, 2nd edition. Ch.27, From the Spanish translation, B)II <i>Las condiciones estadisticas</i>, p.396. Quotation: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}
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</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>el pensamiento psicologico especifico, en las ultima decadas, fue suprimido y eliminado casi totalmente, siendo sustituido por un pensamiento estadistico. Precisamente aqui vemos el cáncer de la testología y testomania de hoy.</p></blockquote></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Stevens_1946-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stevens_1946_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFStevens1946" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Stanley_Smith_Stevens" title="Stanley Smith Stevens">Stevens, S. S.</a> (7 June 1946). "On the Theory of Scales of Measurement". <i><a href="Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>103</b> (2684): <span class="nowrap">677–</span>680. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1946Sci...103..677S">1946Sci...103..677S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.103.2684.677">10.1126/science.103.2684.677</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17750512">17750512</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4667599">4667599</a>.</cite></span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMichell1997" class="citation journal cs1">Michell, Joel (August 1997). "Quantitative science and the definition of measurement in psychology". <i>British Journal of Psychology</i>. <b>88</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">355–</span>383. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.2044-8295.1997.tb02641.x">10.1111/j.2044-8295.1997.tb02641.x</a>.</cite></span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFResse1943" class="citation journal cs1">Resse, Thomas Whelan (1943). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0093539">"The application of the theory of physical measurement to the measurement of psychological magnitudes, with three experimental examples"</a></span>. <i>Psychological Monographs</i>. <b>55</b> (3): i–89. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0093539">10.1037/h0093539</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-9753">0096-9753</a>.</cite></span>
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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.assessmentpsychology.com/psychometrics.htm">"Psychometrics"</a>. <i>Assessmentpsychology.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSternFavaWilensRosenbaum2016" class="citation book cs1">Stern, Theodore A.; Fava, Maurizio; Wilens, Timothy E.; Rosenbaum, Jerrold F. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y5nTBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74"><i>Massachusetts General Hospital comprehensive clinical psychiatry</i></a> (Second ed.). London. p. 73. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0323295079</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</span></span>
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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAndrich,_D.Luo,_G.1993" class="citation journal cs1">Andrich, D. & Luo, G. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apm.sagepub.com/content/19/3/269.full.pdf">"A hyperbolic cosine model for unfolding dichotomous single-stimulus responses"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Applied Psychological Measurement</i>. <b>17</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">253–</span>276. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.1003.8107">10.1.1.1003.8107</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F014662169301700307">10.1177/014662169301700307</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120745971">120745971</a>.</cite></li>
<li>Michell, J. (1999). <i>Measurement in Psychology</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511490040">10.1017/CBO9780511490040</a></li>
<li>Rasch, G. (1960/1980). <i>Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests</i>. Copenhagen, Danish Institute for Educational Research), expanded edition (1980) with foreword and afterword by B.D. Wright. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.</li>
<li>Reese, T.W. (1943). The application of the theory of physical measurement to the measurement of psychological magnitudes, with three experimental examples. <i>Psychological Monographs, 55</i>, 1–89. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0061367">10.1037/h0061367</a></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFStevens,_S._S.1946" class="citation journal cs1">Stevens, S. S. (1946). "On the theory of scales of measurement". <i>Science</i>. <b>103</b> (2684): <span class="nowrap">677–</span>80. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1946Sci...103..677S">1946Sci...103..677S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.103.2684.677">10.1126/science.103.2684.677</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17750512">17750512</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFThurstone,_L.L.1927" class="citation journal cs1">Thurstone, L.L. (1927). "A law of comparative judgement". <i>Psychological Review</i>. <b>34</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">278–</span>286. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0070288">10.1037/h0070288</a>.</cite></li>
<li>Thurstone, L.L. (1929). The Measurement of Psychological Value. In T.V. Smith and W.K. Wright (Eds.), <i>Essays in Philosophy by Seventeen Doctors of Philosophy of the University of Chicago</i>. Chicago: Open Court.</li>
<li>Thurstone, L.L. (1959). <i>The Measurement of Values</i>. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFS.F._Blinkhorn1997" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Steve_Blinkhorn" title="Steve Blinkhorn">S.F. Blinkhorn</a> (1997). "Past imperfect, future conditional: fifty years of test theory". <i>British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology</i>. <b>50</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">175–</span>185. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.2044-8317.1997.tb01139.x">10.1111/j.2044-8317.1997.tb01139.x</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFSanford2017" class="citation web cs1">Sanford, David (18 November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/cambridge-just-told-me-big-data-doesnt-work-yet-david-sanford/">"Cambridge just told me Big Data doesn't work yet"</a>. <i>LinkedIn</i>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>
<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFRobert_F._DeVellis2016" class="citation book cs1">Robert F. DeVellis (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=48ACCwAAQBAJ"><i>Scale Development: Theory and Applications</i></a>. SAGE Publications. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-5063-4158-3</bdi>.</cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFBorsboom,_Denny2005" class="citation book cs1">Borsboom, Denny (2005). <a href="Measuring_the_Mind" title="Measuring the Mind"><i>Measuring the Mind: Conceptual Issues in Contemporary Psychometrics</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-84463-5</bdi>.</cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFLeslie_A._MillerRobert_L._Lovler2015" class="citation book cs1">Leslie A. Miller; Robert L. Lovler (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8EYdCAAAQBAJ"><i>Foundations of Psychological Testing: A Practical Approach</i></a>. SAGE Publications. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4833-6927-3</bdi>.</cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFRoderick_P._McDonald2013" class="citation book cs1">Roderick P. McDonald (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_feqA2RdyOoC"><i>Test Theory: A Unified Treatment</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-135-67530-1</bdi>.</cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Kline2000" class="citation book cs1">Paul Kline (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lm2RxaKaok8C"><i>The Handbook of Psychological Testing</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-415-21158-1</bdi>.</cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFRush_AJ_JrFirst_MBBlacker_D2008" class="citation book cs1">Rush AJ Jr; First MB; Blacker D (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ddyZUcaGaRIC"><i>Handbook of Psychiatric Measures</i></a>. American Psychiatric Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-58562-218-4</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/85885343">85885343</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFAnn_C_Silverlake2016" class="citation book cs1">Ann C Silverlake (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zl8PDQAAQBAJ"><i>Comprehending Test Manuals: A Guide and Workbook</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-351-97086-0</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/science/programs/testing/standards">APA Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ipip.ori.org/">International Personality Item Pool</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091015044732/http://www.wmich.edu/evalctr/jc/">Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psychometrics.cam.ac.uk/">The Psychometrics Centre, University of Cambridge</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychometricsociety.org/">Psychometric Society and Psychometrika homepage</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psychometriclab.com/">London Psychometric Laboratory</a></li></ul>
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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_intelligence_topics324" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Human_intelligence_topics324" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human</a> <a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a> <a href="Outline_of_human_intelligence" title="Outline of human intelligence">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective</a></li>
<li><a href="Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional</a></li>
<li><a href="Intellectual_giftedness" title="Intellectual giftedness">Intellectual</a></li>
<li><a href="Linguistic_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic intelligence">Linguistic</a></li>
<li><a href="Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">Multiple</a></li>
<li><a href="Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">Social</a></li>
<li><a href="Spatial_intelligence_(psychology)" title="Spatial intelligence (psychology)">Spatial</a> (<a href="Spatial_visualization_ability" title="Spatial visualization ability">visuospatial</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ability" title="Ability">Abilities</a>, traits,<br>and constructs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>
<li><a href="Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li>
<li><a href="Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li>
<li><a href="Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li>
<li><a href="Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="G_factor_(psychometrics)" title="G factor (psychometrics)"><i>g</i> factor</a></li>
<li><a href="Intellect" title="Intellect">Intellect</a></li>
<li><a href="Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">Intelligence quotient</a></li>
<li><a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li>
<li><a href="Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li>
<li><a href="Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a></li>
<li><a href="Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a></li>
<li><a href="Skill" title="Skill">Skill</a></li>
<li><a href="Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a> (<a href="Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>)</li>
<li><a href="Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li>
<li><a href="Visual_system" title="Visual system">Visual processing</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Cattell%E2%80%93Horn%E2%80%93Carroll_theory" title="Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory">Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">Multiple-intelligences theory</a></li>
<li><a href="PASS_theory_of_intelligence" title="PASS theory of intelligence">PASS theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Three-stratum_theory" title="Three-stratum theory">Three-stratum theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Triarchic_theory_of_intelligence" title="Triarchic theory of intelligence">Triarchic theory</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas of research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Evolution of human intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="Heritability_of_IQ" title="Heritability of IQ">Heritability of IQ</a></li>
<li><a href="Environment_and_intelligence" title="Environment and intelligence">Intelligence and environment</a> / <a href="Fertility_and_intelligence" title="Fertility and intelligence">fertility</a> / <a href="Height_and_intelligence" title="Height and intelligence">height</a> / <a href="Impact_of_health_on_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of health on intelligence">health</a> / <a href="Cognitive_epidemiology" title="Cognitive epidemiology">longevity</a> / <a href="Neuroscience_and_intelligence" title="Neuroscience and intelligence">neuroscience</a> / <a href="Intelligence_and_personality" title="Intelligence and personality">personality</a> / <a href="Race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">race</a> / <a href="Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">sex</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow plainlist" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"></span></span> <a href="Outline_of_human_intelligence" title="Outline of human intelligence">Outline of human intelligence</a> / <a href="Outline_of_thought" title="Outline of thought">thought</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Psychology908" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#BFD7FF;"><div id="Psychology908" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div>
<ul><li><a href="History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="Portal%3APsychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychologist" title="Psychologist">Psychologist</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic <br>psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li>
<li><a href="Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li>
<li><a href="Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li>
<li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li>
<li><a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>
<li><a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li>
<li><a href="Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a>
<ul><li><a href="Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li>
<li><a href="Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li>
<li><a href="Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li>
<li><a href="Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li>
<li><a href="Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li>
<li><a href="Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li>
<li><a href="Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li>
<li><a href="Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li>
<li><a href="Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li>
<li><a href="Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li>
<li><a href="Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li>
<li><a href="Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li>
<li><a href="Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li>
<li><a href="Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li>
<li><a href="Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li>
<li><a href="Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied <br>psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li>
<li><a href="Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychology_of_art" title="Psychology of art">Art</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li>
<li><a href="Aviation_psychology" title="Aviation psychology">Aviation</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychobiography" title="Psychobiography">Biography of famous people</a></li>
<li><a href="Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li>
<li><a href="Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychology_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology of color">Color</a></li>
<li><a href="Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li>
<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li>
<li><a href="Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li>
<li><a href="Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li>
<li><a href="Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational</a></li>
<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li>
<li><a href="Fashion_psychology" title="Fashion psychology">Fashion</a></li>
<li><a href="Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="Food_psychology" title="Food psychology">Food</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li>
<li><a href="Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychohistory" title="Psychohistory">History</a></li>
<li><a href="Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li>
<li><a href="Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li>
<li><a href="Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li>
<li><a href="Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li>
<li><a href="Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li>
<li><a href="Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="Music_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li>
<li><a href="Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li>
<li><a href="Peace_psychology" title="Peace psychology">Peace and war</a></li>
<li><a href="Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li>
<li><a href="Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive</a></li>
<li><a href="Photo_psychology" title="Photo psychology">Photography</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="School_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="School psychology">School</a></li>
<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></li>
<li><a href="Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Space</a></li>
<li><a href="Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li>
<li><a href="Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li>
<li><a href="Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li>
<li><a href="Stock_trader" title="Stock trader">Trading</a></li>
<li><a href="Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Methodologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li>
<li><a href="Archival_research" title="Archival research">Archival research</a></li>
<li><a href="Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavior epigenetics</a></li>
<li><a href="Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li>
<li><a href="Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experiments</a></li>
<li><a href="Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li>
<li><a href="Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interviews</a></li>
<li><a href="Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li>
<li><a href="Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a></li>
<li><a href="Qualitative_psychological_research" title="Qualitative psychological research">Qualitative research</a></li>
<li><a href="Quantitative_psychological_research" title="Quantitative psychological research">Quantitative research</a></li>
<li><a href="Self-report_inventory" title="Self-report inventory">Self-report inventory</a></li>
<li><a href="Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Statistical surveys</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">
<ul><li><a href="Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li>
<li><a href="Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li>
<li><a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>
<li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>
<li><a href="Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li>
<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>
<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li>
<li><a href="Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li>
<li><a href="Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li>
<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li>
<li><a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">Maslow's hierarchy of needs</a></li>
<li><a href="Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental state</a></li>
<li><a href="Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li>
<li>Psychometrics</li>
<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></li>
<li><a href="Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<li><a href="Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li>
<li><a href="William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li>
<li><a href="Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></li>
<li><a href="Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li>
<li><a href="Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</a></li>
<li><a href="Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a></li>
<li><a href="John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a></li>
<li><a href="Clark_L._Hull" title="Clark L. Hull">Clark L. Hull</a></li>
<li><a href="Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a></li>
<li><a href="Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li>
<li><a href="Gordon_Allport" title="Gordon Allport">Gordon Allport</a></li>
<li><a href="J._P._Guilford" title="J. P. Guilford">J. P. Guilford</a></li>
<li><a href="Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a></li>
<li><a href="Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a></li>
<li><a href="B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></li>
<li><a href="Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a></li>
<li><a href="Ernest_Hilgard" title="Ernest Hilgard">Ernest Hilgard</a></li>
<li><a href="Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry Harlow</a></li>
<li><a href="Raymond_Cattell" title="Raymond Cattell">Raymond Cattell</a></li>
<li><a href="Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a></li>
<li><a href="Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal E. Miller</a></li>
<li><a href="Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a></li>
<li><a href="Donald_T._Campbell" title="Donald T. Campbell">Donald T. Campbell</a></li>
<li><a href="Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li>
<li><a href="Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></li>
<li><a href="David_McClelland" title="David McClelland">David McClelland</a></li>
<li><a href="Leon_Festinger" title="Leon Festinger">Leon Festinger</a></li>
<li><a href="George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></li>
<li><a href="Richard_Lazarus" title="Richard Lazarus">Richard Lazarus</a></li>
<li><a href="Stanley_Schachter" title="Stanley Schachter">Stanley Schachter</a></li>
<li><a href="Robert_Zajonc" title="Robert Zajonc">Robert Zajonc</a></li>
<li><a href="Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></li>
<li><a href="Roger_Brown_(psychologist)" title="Roger Brown (psychologist)">Roger Brown</a></li>
<li><a href="Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li>
<li><a href="Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a></li>
<li><a href="Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li>
<li><a href="Ulric_Neisser" title="Ulric Neisser">Ulric Neisser</a></li>
<li><a href="Jerome_Kagan" title="Jerome Kagan">Jerome Kagan</a></li>
<li><a href="Walter_Mischel" title="Walter Mischel">Walter Mischel</a></li>
<li><a href="Elliot_Aronson" title="Elliot Aronson">Elliot Aronson</a></li>
<li><a href="Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a></li>
<li><a href="Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li>
<li><a href="Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael Posner</a></li>
<li><a href="Amos_Tversky" title="Amos Tversky">Amos Tversky</a></li>
<li><a href="Bruce_McEwen" title="Bruce McEwen">Bruce McEwen</a></li>
<li><a href="Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li>
<li><a href="Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. Nisbett">Richard E. Nisbett</a></li>
<li><a href="Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a></li>
<li><a href="Ed_Diener" title="Ed Diener">Ed Diener</a></li>
<li><a href="Shelley_E._Taylor" title="Shelley E. Taylor">Shelley E. Taylor</a></li>
<li><a href="John_Robert_Anderson_(psychologist)" title="John Robert Anderson (psychologist)">John Anderson</a></li>
<li><a href="Ronald_C._Kessler" title="Ronald C. Kessler">Ronald C. Kessler</a></li>
<li><a href="Joseph_E._LeDoux" title="Joseph E. LeDoux">Joseph E. LeDoux</a></li>
<li><a href="Richard_Davidson" title="Richard Davidson">Richard Davidson</a></li>
<li><a href="Susan_Fiske" title="Susan Fiske">Susan Fiske</a></li>
<li><a href="Roy_Baumeister" title="Roy Baumeister">Roy Baumeister</a></li>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li>
<li><a href="Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li>
<li><a href="Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psychology" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:psychology">Wiktionary definition</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:en:Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Category:en:Psychology">Wiktionary category</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikisource:Category:Psychology">Wikisource</a></li>
<li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/category:Psychology" class="extiw external" title="commons:category:Psychology">Wikimedia Commons</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikiquote:Psychology">Wikiquote</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikinews:Special:Search/Psychology">Wikinews</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Psychology">Wikibooks</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Statistics654" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Statistics654" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_statistics" title="Outline of statistics">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_statistics_articles" title="List of statistics articles">Index</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Descriptive_statistics654" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Descriptive_statistics" title="Descriptive statistics">Descriptive statistics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Continuous_probability_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous probability distribution">Continuous data</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Central_tendency" title="Central tendency">Center</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Mean" title="Mean">Mean</a>
<ul><li><a href="Arithmetic_mean" title="Arithmetic mean">Arithmetic</a></li>
<li><a href="Arithmetic%E2%80%93geometric_mean" title="Arithmetic–geometric mean">Arithmetic-Geometric</a></li>
<li><a href="Contraharmonic_mean" title="Contraharmonic mean">Contraharmonic</a></li>
<li><a href="Cubic_mean" title="Cubic mean">Cubic</a></li>
<li><a href="Generalized_mean" title="Generalized mean">Generalized/power</a></li>
<li><a href="Geometric_mean" title="Geometric mean">Geometric</a></li>
<li><a href="Harmonic_mean" title="Harmonic mean">Harmonic</a></li>
<li><a href="Heronian_mean" title="Heronian mean">Heronian</a></li>
<li><a href="Heinz_mean" title="Heinz mean">Heinz</a></li>
<li><a href="Lehmer_mean" title="Lehmer mean">Lehmer</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Median" title="Median">Median</a></li>
<li><a href="Mode_(statistics)" title="Mode (statistics)">Mode</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Statistical_dispersion" title="Statistical dispersion">Dispersion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Average_absolute_deviation" title="Average absolute deviation">Average absolute deviation</a></li>
<li><a href="Coefficient_of_variation" title="Coefficient of variation">Coefficient of variation</a></li>
<li><a href="Interquartile_range" title="Interquartile range">Interquartile range</a></li>
<li><a href="Percentile" title="Percentile">Percentile</a></li>
<li><a href="Range_(statistics)" title="Range (statistics)">Range</a></li>
<li><a href="Standard_deviation" title="Standard deviation">Standard deviation</a></li>
<li><a href="Variance#Sample_variance" title="Variance">Variance</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Shape_of_the_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Shape of the distribution">Shape</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Central_limit_theorem" title="Central limit theorem">Central limit theorem</a></li>
<li><a href="Moment_(mathematics)" title="Moment (mathematics)">Moments</a>
<ul><li><a href="Kurtosis" title="Kurtosis">Kurtosis</a></li>
<li><a href="L-moment" title="L-moment">L-moments</a></li>
<li><a href="Skewness" title="Skewness">Skewness</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Count_data" title="Count data">Count data</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Index_of_dispersion" title="Index of dispersion">Index of dispersion</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em">Summary tables</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Contingency_table" title="Contingency table">Contingency table</a></li>
<li><a href="Frequency_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequency distribution">Frequency distribution</a></li>
<li><a href="Grouped_data" title="Grouped data">Grouped data</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Correlation_and_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlation and dependence">Dependence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Partial_correlation" title="Partial correlation">Partial correlation</a></li>
<li><a href="Pearson_correlation_coefficient" title="Pearson correlation coefficient">Pearson product-moment correlation</a></li>
<li><a href="Rank_correlation" title="Rank correlation">Rank correlation</a>
<ul><li><a href="Kendall_rank_correlation_coefficient" title="Kendall rank correlation coefficient">Kendall's τ</a></li>
<li><a href="Spearman's_rank_correlation_coefficient" title="Spearman's rank correlation coefficient">Spearman's ρ</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Scatter_plot" title="Scatter plot">Scatter plot</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Statistical_graphics" title="Statistical graphics">Graphics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Bar_chart" title="Bar chart">Bar chart</a></li>
<li><a href="Biplot" title="Biplot">Biplot</a></li>
<li><a href="Box_plot" title="Box plot">Box plot</a></li>
<li><a href="Control_chart" title="Control chart">Control chart</a></li>
<li><a href="Correlogram" title="Correlogram">Correlogram</a></li>
<li><a href="Fan_chart_(statistics)" title="Fan chart (statistics)">Fan chart</a></li>
<li><a href="Forest_plot" title="Forest plot">Forest plot</a></li>
<li><a href="Histogram" title="Histogram">Histogram</a></li>
<li><a href="Pie_chart" title="Pie chart">Pie chart</a></li>
<li><a href="Q%E2%80%93Q_plot" title="Q–Q plot">Q–Q plot</a></li>
<li><a href="Radar_chart" title="Radar chart">Radar chart</a></li>
<li><a href="Run_chart" title="Run chart">Run chart</a></li>
<li><a href="Scatter_plot" title="Scatter plot">Scatter plot</a></li>
<li><a href="Stem-and-leaf_display" title="Stem-and-leaf display">Stem-and-leaf display</a></li>
<li><a href="Violin_plot" title="Violin plot">Violin plot</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Data_collection654" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Data_collection" title="Data collection">Data collection</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">Study design</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Effect_size" title="Effect size">Effect size</a></li>
<li><a href="Missing_data" title="Missing data">Missing data</a></li>
<li><a href="Optimal_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimal design">Optimal design</a></li>
<li><a href="Statistical_population" title="Statistical population">Population</a></li>
<li><a href="Replication_(statistics)" title="Replication (statistics)">Replication</a></li>
<li><a href="Sample_size_determination" title="Sample size determination">Sample size determination</a></li>
<li><a href="Statistic" title="Statistic">Statistic</a></li>
<li><a href="Statistical_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical power">Statistical power</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Survey methodology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling (statistics)">Sampling</a>
<ul><li><a href="Cluster_sampling" title="Cluster sampling">Cluster</a></li>
<li><a href="Stratified_sampling" title="Stratified sampling">Stratified</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Opinion_poll" title="Opinion poll">Opinion poll</a></li>
<li><a href="Questionnaire" title="Questionnaire">Questionnaire</a></li>
<li><a href="Standard_error" title="Standard error">Standard error</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Experiment" title="Experiment">Controlled experiments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Blocking_(statistics)" title="Blocking (statistics)">Blocking</a></li>
<li><a href="Factorial_experiment" title="Factorial experiment">Factorial experiment</a></li>
<li><a href="Interaction_(statistics)" title="Interaction (statistics)">Interaction</a></li>
<li><a href="Random_assignment" title="Random assignment">Random assignment</a></li>
<li><a href="Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li>
<li><a href="Randomized_experiment" title="Randomized experiment">Randomized experiment</a></li>
<li><a href="Scientific_control" title="Scientific control">Scientific control</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em">Adaptive designs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Adaptive_clinical_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive clinical trial">Adaptive clinical trial</a></li>
<li><a href="Stochastic_approximation" title="Stochastic approximation">Stochastic approximation</a></li>
<li><a href="Up-and-Down_Designs" class="mw-redirect" title="Up-and-Down Designs">Up-and-down designs</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Observational_study" title="Observational study">Observational studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">Cohort study</a></li>
<li><a href="Cross-sectional_study" title="Cross-sectional study">Cross-sectional study</a></li>
<li><a href="Natural_experiment" title="Natural experiment">Natural experiment</a></li>
<li><a href="Quasi-experiment" title="Quasi-experiment">Quasi-experiment</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Statistical_inference654" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">Statistical inference</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Statistical_theory" title="Statistical theory">Statistical theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Population_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Population (statistics)">Population</a></li>
<li><a href="Statistic" title="Statistic">Statistic</a></li>
<li><a href="Probability_distribution" title="Probability distribution">Probability distribution</a></li>
<li><a href="Sampling_distribution" title="Sampling distribution">Sampling distribution</a>
<ul><li><a href="Order_statistic" title="Order statistic">Order statistic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Empirical_distribution_function" title="Empirical distribution function">Empirical distribution</a>
<ul><li><a href="Density_estimation" title="Density estimation">Density estimation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Statistical_model" title="Statistical model">Statistical model</a>
<ul><li><a href="Model_specification" class="mw-redirect" title="Model specification">Model specification</a></li>
<li><a href="Lp_space" title="Lp space">L<sup><i>p</i></sup> space</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Statistical_parameter" title="Statistical parameter">Parameter</a>
<ul><li><a href="Location_parameter" title="Location parameter">location</a></li>
<li><a href="Scale_parameter" title="Scale parameter">scale</a></li>
<li><a href="Shape_parameter" title="Shape parameter">shape</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Parametric_statistics" title="Parametric statistics">Parametric family</a>
<ul><li><a href="Likelihood_function" title="Likelihood function">Likelihood</a> <a href="Monotone_likelihood_ratio" title="Monotone likelihood ratio"><span style="font-size: 85%;">(monotone)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="Location%E2%80%93scale_family" title="Location–scale family">Location–scale family</a></li>
<li><a href="Exponential_family" title="Exponential family">Exponential family</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Completeness_(statistics)" title="Completeness (statistics)">Completeness</a></li>
<li><a href="Sufficient_statistic" title="Sufficient statistic">Sufficiency</a></li>
<li><a href="Plug-in_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Plug-in principle">Statistical functional</a>
<ul><li><a href="Bootstrapping_(statistics)" title="Bootstrapping (statistics)">Bootstrap</a></li>
<li><a href="U-statistic" title="U-statistic">U</a></li>
<li><a href="V-statistic" title="V-statistic">V</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Optimal_decision" title="Optimal decision">Optimal decision</a>
<ul><li><a href="Loss_function" title="Loss function">loss function</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Efficiency_(statistics)" title="Efficiency (statistics)">Efficiency</a></li>
<li><a href="Statistical_distance" title="Statistical distance">Statistical distance</a>
<ul><li><a href="Divergence_(statistics)" title="Divergence (statistics)">divergence</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Asymptotic_theory_(statistics)" title="Asymptotic theory (statistics)">Asymptotics</a></li>
<li><a href="Robust_statistics" title="Robust statistics">Robustness</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Frequentist_inference" title="Frequentist inference">Frequentist inference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Point_estimation" title="Point estimation">Point estimation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Estimating_equations" title="Estimating equations">Estimating equations</a>
<ul><li><a href="Maximum_likelihood" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximum likelihood">Maximum likelihood</a></li>
<li><a href="Method_of_moments_(statistics)" title="Method of moments (statistics)">Method of moments</a></li>
<li><a href="M-estimator" title="M-estimator">M-estimator</a></li>
<li><a href="Minimum_distance_estimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimum distance estimation">Minimum distance</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Bias_of_an_estimator" title="Bias of an estimator">Unbiased estimators</a>
<ul><li><a href="Minimum-variance_unbiased_estimator" title="Minimum-variance unbiased estimator">Mean-unbiased minimum-variance</a>
<ul><li><a href="Rao%E2%80%93Blackwell_theorem" title="Rao–Blackwell theorem">Rao–Blackwellization</a></li>
<li><a href="Lehmann%E2%80%93Scheff%C3%A9_theorem" title="Lehmann–Scheffé theorem">Lehmann–Scheffé theorem</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Median-unbiased_estimator" class="mw-redirect" title="Median-unbiased estimator">Median unbiased</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Plug-in_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Plug-in principle">Plug-in</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Interval_estimation" title="Interval estimation">Interval estimation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">Confidence interval</a></li>
<li><a href="Pivotal_quantity" title="Pivotal quantity">Pivot</a></li>
<li><a href="Likelihood_interval" class="mw-redirect" title="Likelihood interval">Likelihood interval</a></li>
<li><a href="Prediction_interval" title="Prediction interval">Prediction interval</a></li>
<li><a href="Tolerance_interval" title="Tolerance interval">Tolerance interval</a></li>
<li><a href="Resampling_(statistics)" title="Resampling (statistics)">Resampling</a>
<ul><li><a href="Bootstrapping_(statistics)" title="Bootstrapping (statistics)">Bootstrap</a></li>
<li><a href="Jackknife_resampling" title="Jackknife resampling">Jackknife</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Testing hypotheses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="One-_and_two-tailed_tests" title="One- and two-tailed tests">1- & 2-tails</a></li>
<li><a href="Power_(statistics)" title="Power (statistics)">Power</a>
<ul><li><a href="Uniformly_most_powerful_test" title="Uniformly most powerful test">Uniformly most powerful test</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Permutation_test" title="Permutation test">Permutation test</a>
<ul><li><a href="Randomization_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Randomization test">Randomization test</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Multiple_comparisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple comparisons">Multiple comparisons</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Parametric_statistics" title="Parametric statistics">Parametric tests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Likelihood-ratio_test" title="Likelihood-ratio test">Likelihood-ratio</a></li>
<li><a href="Score_test" title="Score test">Score/Lagrange multiplier</a></li>
<li><a href="Wald_test" title="Wald test">Wald</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="List_of_statistical_tests" title="List of statistical tests">Specific tests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test <span style="font-size: 85%;">(normal)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="Student's_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's <i>t</i>-test</a></li>
<li><a href="F-test" title="F-test"><i>F</i>-test</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Goodness_of_fit" title="Goodness of fit">Goodness of fit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Chi-squared_test" title="Chi-squared test">Chi-squared</a></li>
<li><a href="G-test" title="G-test"><i>G</i>-test</a></li>
<li><a href="Kolmogorov%E2%80%93Smirnov_test" title="Kolmogorov–Smirnov test">Kolmogorov–Smirnov</a></li>
<li><a href="Anderson%E2%80%93Darling_test" title="Anderson–Darling test">Anderson–Darling</a></li>
<li><a href="Lilliefors_test" title="Lilliefors test">Lilliefors</a></li>
<li><a href="Jarque%E2%80%93Bera_test" title="Jarque–Bera test">Jarque–Bera</a></li>
<li><a href="Shapiro%E2%80%93Wilk_test" title="Shapiro–Wilk test">Normality <span style="font-size: 85%;">(Shapiro–Wilk)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="Likelihood-ratio_test" title="Likelihood-ratio test">Likelihood-ratio test</a></li>
<li><a href="Model_selection" title="Model selection">Model selection</a>
<ul><li><a href="Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross validation</a></li>
<li><a href="Akaike_information_criterion" title="Akaike information criterion">AIC</a></li>
<li><a href="Bayesian_information_criterion" title="Bayesian information criterion">BIC</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Rank_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Rank statistics">Rank statistics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Sign_test" title="Sign test">Sign</a>
<ul><li><a href="Sample_median" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample median">Sample median</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Wilcoxon_signed-rank_test" title="Wilcoxon signed-rank test">Signed rank <span style="font-size: 85%;">(Wilcoxon)</span></a>
<ul><li><a href="Hodges%E2%80%93Lehmann_estimator" title="Hodges–Lehmann estimator">Hodges–Lehmann estimator</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Mann%E2%80%93Whitney_U_test" title="Mann–Whitney U test">Rank sum <span style="font-size: 85%;">(Mann–Whitney)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="Nonparametric_statistics" title="Nonparametric statistics">Nonparametric</a> <a href="Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">anova</a>
<ul><li><a href="Kruskal%E2%80%93Wallis_test" title="Kruskal–Wallis test">1-way <span style="font-size: 85%;">(Kruskal–Wallis)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="Friedman_test" title="Friedman test">2-way <span style="font-size: 85%;">(Friedman)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="Jonckheere's_trend_test" title="Jonckheere's trend test">Ordered alternative <span style="font-size: 85%;">(Jonckheere–Terpstra)</span></a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Van_der_Waerden_test" title="Van der Waerden test">Van der Waerden test</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Bayesian_probability" title="Bayesian probability">Bayesian probability</a>
<ul><li><a href="Prior_probability" title="Prior probability">prior</a></li>
<li><a href="Posterior_probability" title="Posterior probability">posterior</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Credible_interval" title="Credible interval">Credible interval</a></li>
<li><a href="Bayes_factor" title="Bayes factor">Bayes factor</a></li>
<li><a href="Bayes_estimator" title="Bayes estimator">Bayesian estimator</a>
<ul><li><a href="Maximum_a_posteriori_estimation" title="Maximum a posteriori estimation">Maximum posterior estimator</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="CorrelationRegression_analysis654" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="Correlation_and_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlation and dependence">Correlation</a></li><li><a href="Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Correlation_and_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlation and dependence">Correlation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Pearson_product-moment_correlation_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient">Pearson product-moment</a></li>
<li><a href="Partial_correlation" title="Partial correlation">Partial correlation</a></li>
<li><a href="Confounding" title="Confounding">Confounding variable</a></li>
<li><a href="Coefficient_of_determination" title="Coefficient of determination">Coefficient of determination</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Errors_and_residuals" title="Errors and residuals">Errors and residuals</a></li>
<li><a href="Regression_validation" title="Regression validation">Regression validation</a></li>
<li><a href="Mixed_model" title="Mixed model">Mixed effects models</a></li>
<li><a href="Simultaneous_equations_model" title="Simultaneous equations model">Simultaneous equations models</a></li>
<li><a href="Multivariate_adaptive_regression_splines" class="mw-redirect" title="Multivariate adaptive regression splines">Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Linear_regression" title="Linear regression">Linear regression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Simple_linear_regression" title="Simple linear regression">Simple linear regression</a></li>
<li><a href="Ordinary_least_squares" title="Ordinary least squares">Ordinary least squares</a></li>
<li><a href="General_linear_model" title="General linear model">General linear model</a></li>
<li><a href="Bayesian_linear_regression" title="Bayesian linear regression">Bayesian regression</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em">Non-standard predictors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Nonlinear_regression" title="Nonlinear regression">Nonlinear regression</a></li>
<li><a href="Nonparametric_regression" title="Nonparametric regression">Nonparametric</a></li>
<li><a href="Semiparametric_regression" title="Semiparametric regression">Semiparametric</a></li>
<li><a href="Isotonic_regression" title="Isotonic regression">Isotonic</a></li>
<li><a href="Robust_regression" title="Robust regression">Robust</a></li>
<li><a href="Homoscedasticity_and_heteroscedasticity" title="Homoscedasticity and heteroscedasticity">Homoscedasticity and Heteroscedasticity</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Generalized_linear_model" title="Generalized linear model">Generalized linear model</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Exponential_family" title="Exponential family">Exponential families</a></li>
<li><a href="Logistic_regression" title="Logistic regression">Logistic <span style="font-size: 85%;">(Bernoulli)</span></a> / <a href="Binomial_regression" title="Binomial regression">Binomial</a> / <a href="Poisson_regression" title="Poisson regression">Poisson regressions</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Partition_of_sums_of_squares" title="Partition of sums of squares">Partition of variance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA, anova)</a></li>
<li><a href="Analysis_of_covariance" title="Analysis of covariance">Analysis of covariance</a></li>
<li><a href="Multivariate_analysis_of_variance" title="Multivariate analysis of variance">Multivariate ANOVA</a></li>
<li><a href="Degrees_of_freedom_(statistics)" title="Degrees of freedom (statistics)">Degrees of freedom</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Categorical_/_multivariate_/_time-series_/_survival_analysis654" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Categorical_variable" title="Categorical variable">Categorical</a> / <a href="Multivariate_statistics" title="Multivariate statistics">multivariate</a> / <a href="Time_series" title="Time series">time-series</a> / <a href="Survival_analysis" title="Survival analysis">survival analysis</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Categorical_variable" title="Categorical variable">Categorical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Cohen's_kappa" title="Cohen's kappa">Cohen's kappa</a></li>
<li><a href="Contingency_table" title="Contingency table">Contingency table</a></li>
<li><a href="Graphical_model" title="Graphical model">Graphical model</a></li>
<li><a href="Poisson_regression" title="Poisson regression">Log-linear model</a></li>
<li><a href="McNemar's_test" title="McNemar's test">McNemar's test</a></li>
<li><a href="Cochran%E2%80%93Mantel%E2%80%93Haenszel_statistics" title="Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel statistics">Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel statistics</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Multivariate_statistics" title="Multivariate statistics">Multivariate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="General_linear_model" title="General linear model">Regression</a></li>
<li><a href="Multivariate_analysis_of_variance" title="Multivariate analysis of variance">Manova</a></li>
<li><a href="Principal_component_analysis" title="Principal component analysis">Principal components</a></li>
<li><a href="Canonical_correlation" title="Canonical correlation">Canonical correlation</a></li>
<li><a href="Linear_discriminant_analysis" title="Linear discriminant analysis">Discriminant analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Cluster_analysis" title="Cluster analysis">Cluster analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Statistical_classification" title="Statistical classification">Classification</a></li>
<li><a href="Structural_equation_modeling" title="Structural equation modeling">Structural equation model</a>
<ul><li><a href="Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">Factor analysis</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Multivariate_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Multivariate distribution">Multivariate distributions</a>
<ul><li><a href="Elliptical_distribution" title="Elliptical distribution">Elliptical distributions</a>
<ul><li><a href="Multivariate_normal_distribution" title="Multivariate normal distribution">Normal</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Time_series" title="Time series">Time-series</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Decomposition_of_time_series" title="Decomposition of time series">Decomposition</a></li>
<li><a href="Trend_estimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Trend estimation">Trend</a></li>
<li><a href="Stationary_process" title="Stationary process">Stationarity</a></li>
<li><a href="Seasonal_adjustment" title="Seasonal adjustment">Seasonal adjustment</a></li>
<li><a href="Exponential_smoothing" title="Exponential smoothing">Exponential smoothing</a></li>
<li><a href="Cointegration" title="Cointegration">Cointegration</a></li>
<li><a href="Structural_break" title="Structural break">Structural break</a></li>
<li><a href="Granger_causality" title="Granger causality">Granger causality</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Specific tests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Dickey%E2%80%93Fuller_test" title="Dickey–Fuller test">Dickey–Fuller</a></li>
<li><a href="Johansen_test" title="Johansen test">Johansen</a></li>
<li><a href="Ljung%E2%80%93Box_test" title="Ljung–Box test">Q-statistic <span style="font-size: 85%;">(Ljung–Box)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="Durbin%E2%80%93Watson_statistic" title="Durbin–Watson statistic">Durbin–Watson</a></li>
<li><a href="Breusch%E2%80%93Godfrey_test" title="Breusch–Godfrey test">Breusch–Godfrey</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Time_domain" title="Time domain">Time domain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Autocorrelation" title="Autocorrelation">Autocorrelation (ACF)</a>
<ul><li><a href="Partial_autocorrelation_function" title="Partial autocorrelation function">partial (PACF)</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Cross-correlation" title="Cross-correlation">Cross-correlation (XCF)</a></li>
<li><a href="Autoregressive%E2%80%93moving-average_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoregressive–moving-average model">ARMA model</a></li>
<li><a href="Box%E2%80%93Jenkins_method" title="Box–Jenkins method">ARIMA model <span style="font-size: 85%;">(Box–Jenkins)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="Autoregressive_conditional_heteroskedasticity" title="Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity">Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)</a></li>
<li><a href="Vector_autoregression" title="Vector autoregression">Vector autoregression (VAR)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Frequency_domain" title="Frequency domain">Frequency domain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Spectral_density_estimation" title="Spectral density estimation">Spectral density estimation</a></li>
<li><a href="Fourier_analysis" title="Fourier analysis">Fourier analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Least-squares_spectral_analysis" title="Least-squares spectral analysis">Least-squares spectral analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Wavelet" title="Wavelet">Wavelet</a></li>
<li><a href="Whittle_likelihood" title="Whittle likelihood">Whittle likelihood</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Survival_analysis" title="Survival analysis">Survival</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Survival_function" title="Survival function">Survival function</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Kaplan%E2%80%93Meier_estimator" title="Kaplan–Meier estimator">Kaplan–Meier estimator (product limit)</a></li>
<li><a href="Proportional_hazards_model" title="Proportional hazards model">Proportional hazards models</a></li>
<li><a href="Accelerated_failure_time_model" title="Accelerated failure time model">Accelerated failure time (AFT) model</a></li>
<li><a href="First-hitting-time_model" title="First-hitting-time model">First hitting time</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Failure_rate" title="Failure rate">Hazard function</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Nelson%E2%80%93Aalen_estimator" title="Nelson–Aalen estimator">Nelson–Aalen estimator</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Test</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Log-rank_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Log-rank test">Log-rank test</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Applications654" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="List_of_fields_of_application_of_statistics" title="List of fields of application of statistics">Applications</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li>
<li><a href="Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a> / <a href="Clinical_study_design" title="Clinical study design">studies</a></li>
<li><a href="Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li>
<li><a href="Medical_statistics" title="Medical statistics">Medical statistics</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Engineering_statistics" title="Engineering statistics">Engineering statistics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Chemometrics" title="Chemometrics">Chemometrics</a></li>
<li><a href="Methods_engineering" title="Methods engineering">Methods engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="Probabilistic_design" title="Probabilistic design">Probabilistic design</a></li>
<li><a href="Statistical_process_control" title="Statistical process control">Process</a> / <a href="Quality_control" title="Quality control">quality control</a></li>
<li><a href="Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability</a></li>
<li><a href="System_identification" title="System identification">System identification</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Social_statistics" title="Social statistics">Social statistics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Actuarial_science" title="Actuarial science">Actuarial science</a></li>
<li><a href="Census" title="Census">Census</a></li>
<li><a href="Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">Crime statistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Demographic_statistics" title="Demographic statistics">Demography</a></li>
<li><a href="Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li>
<li><a href="Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li>
<li><a href="National_accounts" title="National accounts">National accounts</a></li>
<li><a href="Official_statistics" title="Official statistics">Official statistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Population_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Population statistics">Population statistics</a></li>
</ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial statistics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></li>
<li><a href="Environmental_statistics" title="Environmental statistics">Environmental statistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li>
<li><a href="Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Kriging" title="Kriging">Kriging</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span><b>Category</b></li>
<li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="skin-invert-image noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> </span><a href="Portal%3AMathematics" title="Portal:Mathematics">Mathematics portal</a></b></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Statistics" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Statistics">Commons</a></b></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"></span></span> <b>WikiProject</b></li></ul>
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